Philosophy-Business Ethics Essay

 

 

Order Number			45471455714
Type of Paper			Essay
Writer Classification Level			Undergraduate
Style of Writing			MLA/APA/CHICAGO/
Sources and References			5
Number of Pages			4
Paper Instructions Philosophy: PP247 Assignment 2 – Essay Suggested length is 1000-1600 words. You are expected to reference direct quotations from course notes (Unit 8) and readings, and any outside sources that you rely upon. Not picky about citation format as long as it’s easy for me to locate and check them. Address one of the Ethical Issues raised by Advertising and defend your own position with reference to course material. (Unit 8) You’ll need to find an issue or question that is worth writing on – something debatable, about which you can develop your own argument. Arrington’s philosophically meaty article is a good source of questions. For example, is puffery ethical? – consider theorists discussed who criticize and defend puffery, and argue you own position taking account of counter-arguments. Or does advertising undermine autonomy or “create desires” in a sinister way? – consider what autonomy is, Galbraith and Hayek’s arguments, and defend your own position against counter-arguments. You can also consider issues more briefly touched upon, like the ethics of advertising to children or teenagers, but in such cases you’d benefit from outside research. General Advice on writing Philosophy Essays 1. I’m looking for knowledge of the relevant course material, understanding and evaluation of the arguments involved, and some original and coherent thinking. Style is relevant. This involves such things as clarity and organization. 2. The essay is a defence of your own position regarding a question of ethical significance. To give your position a worthy defence, imagine that your reader is skeptical about your conclusion but sympathetic to well formulated arguments. 3. Addressing likely counter-arguments is part of making a good case. When arguing for a position, imagine how your opponent might reply and how you might counter their response. 4. If your thesis and argument is so obvious or vague that no reasonable person would disagree, you might benefit from choosing a more debatable topic or making a more precise and ambitious argument. 5. Strong argumentation and originality of thought are highly valued in philosophy papers. This could involve subtle and detailed analysis of an issue, and it could involve comparing and connecting different ideas in order to develop your own view. 6. As a reader, I want you to give me the most for the least – that is, to make lots of points, defend them adequately, back them up with appropriate attention to course material, and to do this without padding or repetition. 7. Marks will be deducted for poor writing (organization, grammar, spelling, and diction), so proofread carefully. Better to divide your paper into short paragraphs, than have long rambling paragraphs with separate or loosely related ideas. 8. I dislike papers that clearly misread an author or text, that are self-contradictory, or that say little in a vague way. 9. All ideas taken from someone else should be referenced in MLA or APA format. Page references should be given for all direct quotations. If you are researching a case for analysis, make sure to reference your factual sources. Unit Eight: Advertising Ethics 8.0 Introduction Advertising raises a number of ethical issues. Some relate to the topic of deception we discussed in the last unit. Advertising tries to manipulate us into buying something, usually in ways that are more subtle than blatant deception. There are also issues concerning the advertising of harmful products, and the effect of advertising’s underlying message that consumerism and buying things is the way to be happy. The course materials include two philosophical articles about the effects of advertising, and a film which sums up many issues discussed in the unit. Because the film presents a lot of ideas, it is best to view it after you’ve worked through the readings and course notes. Learning Outcomes After completing this unit you will be able to: ● Define concepts such as puffery, associative advertising, the dependence effect, and autonomy. ● State several ethical issues raised by advertising and develop one’s own position. ● Explain how advertising affects society and influences our values. Readings Lutz, William (1989), “With These Words I Can Sell You Anything,” Doublespeak. New York: Harper Collins, p.76-103. Arrington, Robert (1991), “Advertising and Behavior Control,” from Business Ethics in Canada, 2nd ed., ed. Deborah Poff and Wilfrid Waluchow. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall, p.469-478. Waide, John (1991), “The Making of Self and World in Advertising,” from Business Ethics in Canada, 2nd ed., ed. Deborah Poff and Wilfrid Waluchow. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall, p.489-493. Tittle, Peg (2000), “Case Study – Youth News Network (YNN),” from Ethical Issues in Business: Inquiries, Cases, and Readings. Peterborough: Broadview Press, p.128-129. Velasquez, Manuel (2007), “Case 9.1 – Toy Wars,” from Honest Work: A Business Ethics Reader. New York: Oxford University Press, p.343-346. Web Reading Canadian Code of Advertising Standards Readings for Section 8.6 are embedded in the course notes. Film Advertising and the End of the World 40 min, 1998 – Distributor and Producer: Media Education Foundation Link to video Synopsis: This program presents a compelling and accessible argument about consumerism and its impact on the earth’s future. Sut Jhally contends that advertising is the most concentrated effort in history to change public consciousness. The average person is exposed to 3600 commercial impressions every day, making advertising the most pervasive message system in the consumer culture. Understanding its influence demands that we pay attention not just to isolated advertisements but to the way in which advertising functions as a cultural system. Glossary Terms ● Associative Advertising ● Autonomy ● Bait and Switch ● Behaviourism ● Consumer Sovereignty ● Dependence Effect ● Influencer Marketing ● Aspirational vs. Authoritative Influencers ● Native Advertising ● Product Placement ● Puffery ● Subliminal Advertising ● Transparency Rule, Disclosure Rule Persons of Note ● Arrington, Robert ● Freud, Sigmund ● Galbraith, John Kenneth ● Hayek, Friedrich ● Jhally, Sut (film) ● Levitt, Theodore ● Waide, John ● Watson, John B. 8.1 History of Advertising Advertising began as a rational enterprise, whose purpose was to convey information about a product or service and make claims in propositional form. Here is an example of a newspaper ad that appeared in the Boston Gazette in 18th century America: “Whereas many persons are so unfortunate as to lose their Foreteeth by Accident, and otherways, to their great Detriment, not only in Looks but Speaking both in Public and Private: This is to inform all such, that they may have them replaced with false Ones, that look as well as the Natural, and Answers the End of Speaking to all Intents, by PAUL REVERE, Goldsmith” (Postman, 1985, p.59). This is an ad for dentistry which states basic facts about the service. The Paul Revere mentioned here is the man famous for sounding the alarm “The British are coming!” during the American Revolution. Many real estate or help wanted ads today have a similar informational focus. It was only in the 1890’s that there was a shift in advertising to slogans, jingles, and photographic images. “You push the button, we do the rest” is said to be one of the first advertising slogans. Then cereal began to be promoted, not with a description of it’s properties, but with “a picture of a baby in a high chair, the bowl of cereal before him, his spoon in hand, his face ecstatic” (Postman, 1985, p.60). In the 1920’s, advertising began to draw on psychology to influence consumer behaviour. The psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud and the behaviorist theories of John B. Watson were both becoming popular. Freud saw humans not as rational beings, but as controlled by unconscious desires, often sexual in nature. Watson, the father of behaviourism, saw people as a stimulus-response mechanism which could be conditioned to behave in certain ways, like the dog in Pavlov’s classic behaviorist experiment that learned to salivate when a bell was rung because it came to associate the sound with being fed. After Watson lost his academic job in 1926 after having an affair with a student, he went to work for the Madison Avenue advertising industry. With the coming of television in the 1950’s – a medium attracting millions of viewers and financed by advertising revenue – the most prominent ads became TV commercials. These were (and still are) mostly little dramas with a message, which appeal to emotion and create powerful positive associations for the product. It was at this point that the effects of advertising began to be criticized in influential books like John Kenneth Galbraith’s The Affluent Society (1958) and Vance Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders (1958). Their ideas are discussed in the Arrington article in the course package. 8.2.1 Canadian Code of Advertising Standards Click on this link to read the current code (revised July 2019). Below I have summarized and commented on several noteworthy provisions. You will notice that the first points and the majority of the points deal with the imperative to be truthful and non-deceptive. Advertisers must not misrepresent the product or its price and availability. The 14th provision, “Unacceptable Depictions and Portrayals,” was added in the 2019 update. 1. Accuracy and Clarity Advertisements must not contain inaccurate or deceptive claims, statements, illustrations or representations, either direct or implied, with regard to a product or service. “Thou shall not lie” is the first commandment of the code. To the extent such claims are merely “implied” we are skating on more ambiguous ground. There are many types and degrees of implication. Some of them we’d all consider deceptive and unethical, and some are commonplace in advertising. See the discussion of advertising doublespeak in the next section. 2. Disguised Advertising Techniques No advertisement shall be presented in a format or style which conceals its commercial intent. For example, lengthy infomercials on late-night TV may have a talk show format, but they are required to identify their commercial status. 3. Price Claims No advertisement shall include deceptive price claims or discounts, unrealistic price comparisons or exaggerated claims as to worth or value. In other words, don’t lie about your prices or those of the competition. 4. Bait and Switch Advertisements must not misrepresent the consumer’s opportunity to purchase the goods and services at the terms presented. “Bait and Switch” is a ploy in which a product is advertised but only a few items are keep in stock, so customers are lured into the store and then switched to more expensive items. Grocery stores will often give “rain cheques” if a sale item is sold out, to keep customers happy and avoid any suspicion that they are using the bait and switch. 5. Professional or Scientific Claims Advertisements must not distort the true meaning of statements made by professionals or scientific authorities. Appeals to authority and scientific claims should be non-deceptive. The Code’s second main area of concern is advertising to children and minors. It forbids exploiting children’s credulity or encouraging those underage to buy adults-only products. 6. Advertising to Children Advertising that is directed to children must not exploit their credulity, lack of experience or their sense of loyalty. Commercials directed at young children are controversial, and some think such advertising should be banned entirely. This goes especially when marketing promotes products that aren’t good for kids, like sugary cereals, pop, and junk food. Quebec’s Consumer Protection Act prohibits television advertising directed at children under 13. Some think such legislation should be enacted in Ontario. The Canadian Code of Advertising Standards at least forbids advertisers from manipulating children in certain ways. 7. Advertising to Minors Products prohibited from sale to minors must not be advertised in such a way as to appeal particularly to persons under legal age. Minors are people under 18, the age of majority in Canada. This provision is aimed particularly at cigarette and alcohol advertising. Using cartoon characters to market cigarettes or showing teenagers drinking beer in an ad would contravene the code. There is also some controversy about the marketing of sexy fashions to teen and preteen girls. Kids are strongly attracted to things signifying adulthood and maturity, while parents don’t want them growing up too fast, especially when it comes to sex. Since it’s not illegal for minors to dress sexy, marketing sexy clothes to them would not contravene the code. The cases for this unit, “Youth News Network” and “Toy Wars,” both deal with advertising directed at children or minors. Keep in mind the material in this section when analyzing them. Unit Eight: Advertising Ethics 8.2.2 Doublespeak: With These Words I Can Sell You Anything (Lutz, p.76-103) This reading is a chapter on advertising from a book on doublespeak – a topic I used to discuss when teaching Reasoning and Argumentation. It is an accessible, non-academic piece with lots of examples to think about. Doublespeak – the art of creating a false impression and misleading through words without actually lying. Advertising uses doublespeak “to make promises without actually promising anything, to make statements about products without actually saying anything, to pretend to communicate while saying nothing” (Lutz, p.83). Parity Products (p.83) – these are products that are essentially the same, so they must be promoted on the basis of image-making. For example, Coke and Pepsi or competing brands of toothpaste. Weasel words (p.85) – claims which are hollow, like an egg whose insides have been sucked out by a weasel. They appear to say something but actually just create a vague positive impression. Some examples from the reading include: “Help” (p.86) – only means to assist or aid, so it involves no promise to do or cure anything. When a toothpaste claims to “help prevent cavities” it doesn’t say it actually will prevent them. “Virtually” (p.88) – means in essence or effect, though not in fact. Saying that when taken as directed birth control pills offer “virtually 100% protection” against pregnancy doesn’t imply a warranty that the pills will be effective. “New and Improved” (p.89) – means the product has been changed in some way. Very minor changes allow companies to make that claim, and whether the change is an improvement is a matter of opinion. “Up To” (p.94) – a sale that promises “up to 50% off” sounds concrete but actually isn’t. Maybe only a few items are that deeply discounted. Unfinished Words (p.95) – “Magnivox gives you more” (More than what? It sounds nice but means nothing.) When I was an undergrad, I worked as a hotel desk clerk in the summer, and well remember some of the doublespeak we used. We were told to offer customers “deluxe hotel rooms” when quoting rates – rooms that most of the staff agreed weren’t any nicer than the regular rooms, but gave customers a chance to plunk down an extra $10-15 if they were willing. Specials listed in our brochures were always listed as “subject to availability” which essentially gave us an out if we ever wanted to withdraw them. One needn’t interpret “availability” to mean any available room but only whatever rooms we decided to set aside for the special. Challenge: pay attention to advertising dramas and slogans to detect their hidden message. When translated into plan statements they are unconvincing, and sometimes laughable or offensive. 8.3 Advertising and Behaviour Control (Arrington, p.3-12) Arrington’s article is more philosophical and academic. It discusses some advertising techniques, and grapples with the worry that advertising can control behaviour and create false desires, and concludes with an analysis of the idea of autonomy. 8.3.1 Puffery Puffery is the practice of making exaggerated, fanciful, or highly suggestive claims about a product or service. Usually the exaggeration is obvious and concerns subjective feelings or non-material associations. Misrepresenting the facts about a product or making false scientific claims isn’t puffery, it is blatant deception (Arrington p.3; Lutz p.83). Arrington begins his article by giving six examples of puffery. For example, this poetic description of make-up: “Pongo Peach color from Revlon comes ‘from east of the sun … west of the moon where each tomorrow dawns.’ It is ‘succulent on your lips’ and ‘sizzling on your finger tips'” (Arrington p.469). Where exactly is East of the Sun? For adults at the time of the ad, it would invoke the title of a classic jazz song recorded by Frank Sinatra and others. A favourite example of mine is the the Molson Canadian beer ad from decades ago which described the product as “cold, clean, and crisp.” This is absurd if you think about each word. Any beer is cold if you put in the fridge, and warm if you don’t. You would hope every beer is clean, that no poisonous chemicals or rodent droppings accidently get into it at the factory. And how can a liquid be crisp? Potato chips are crisp, carrots sticks are crisp, but beer is wet not crunchy. However, the words “cold, clean, and crisp” are effective puffery. They evoke associations of Canadian patriotism, purity, and refreshment. You are supposed to feel that because the beer is from a cold and clean country, it will somehow be colder and cleaner than other beers. Evaluation The most famous attempt to defend puffery was made by Theodore Levitt in 1970. He argued that humans naturally desire to embellish, enrich, and enchant the world around them. Commerce merely takes the same liberty as the artist and the priest in “creating illusions, symbols, and implications that promise more than mere functionality” (Arrington p.5). However, the classic justification for advertising contends that ads simply give us information which allows us to purchase what we want (Arrington p.6). This may have been true of earlier forms of advertising, but with the aid of psychology, modern advertising goes further and tries to shape our desires. 8.3.2 The Dependence Effect The Dependence Effect is economist John Kenneth Galbraith’s concept that business creates the desire for its products through advertising. Rather than producing products to satisfy pre-existing desires, modern business creates the desire for what it has to sell. “The producers make both the product and the desire for it.” The term “dependence effect” refers to “the way wants depend on the same process by which they are satisfied.” (Arrington, p.6). This makes consumers seem like hamsters on a wheel. They can never satisfy their desires for goods, because business will use advertising to make them want more. Business seeks profit, and to do this it must persuade us to want what it has to sell. Responses to Galbraith (1) Hayek – Culturally Induced Desires can be autonomous Defenders of advertising could point out that before certain great artists pioneered certain genres of music, there was no desire to listen to them, and that before certain mechanical inventions were produced, there was no desire to use them. Elvis Presley and The Beatles created a taste for a certain kind of rock music. People were generally content without email and the internet before personal computers opened up this possibility. So in some sense, creating desires and needs has been going on before advertising, and it need not be some sinister violation of our autonomy. This point was made by free-market economist Friedrich Hayek in response to Galbraith. He argues that “we should not equate non-autonomous desires, desires which are not original to me or truly mine, with those that are culturally induced.” (Arrington p.6). The fact that you wouldn’t desire A-1 Steak Sauce if it wasn’t advertised doesn’t mean that ads create a need for it in some sinister way. (2) Mises – Consumer Sovereignty If advertising is enough to make people buy a product, why don’t companies simply invest all their money in marketing? Research and development cost money. So why create new products if you could simply persuade the public to keep buying the existing ones? In the article “Un-PC Lego Making Toys Girls Like” (Essay Resources – Lego Friends), the author invokes Ludwig von Mises’ concept of Consumer Sovereignty. This is the idea that consumers have the ability to refuse to buy what is marketed to them. 8.3.3 Autonomy What is autonomy? It is a complex concept that involves several dimensions. Negative liberty, the absence of constraint. Competence and self-control. The ability to critically reflect about a range of options. It is related to the concept of Positive Freedom that we discussed in Unit 4 (along with positive rights). To be autonomous is not merely to be free, in the sense of being left alone, but to have the inner resources to make use of that freedom in a self-directed way. Autonomy is nourished by education that promotes critical thinking, and restricted by addictions and inner compulsions. Desires can be autonomous or non-autonomous. They are autonomous if we identify with and fully own them. But they can be non-autonomous if they seem foreign to our personality and character, something our “better nature” would like us to stop doing. If I enjoy A-1 Steak Sauce and am completely happy consuming it, my desire for it is autonomous even if I was persuaded to buy it by ads. If I’d like to stop smoking but can’t, my desire for the cigarettes is non-autonomous in conflict with more rational desires. Arrington maintains that “most of the desires induced by advertising I fully accept, hence most of those desires are autonomous” (p.7). Thus it is mistaken to see advertising as a sinister force controlling and programming our desires.
	Distinguished (100%)	Proficient (85%)		Basic (70%)	Below Expectations (50%)	Non-Performance (0%)
Thesis Statement	Raises the strongest   objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is strongly grounded in research and logical reasoning.	Raises a plausible objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is mostly grounded in research and logical reasoning.		Raises an objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is somewhat grounded in research and logical reasoning.	Attempts to raise an objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is minimally grounded in research and logical reasoning.	The objection to the thesis is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.
Counter Argument	Provides a strong, thorough rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal effectively demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and applies the principles of charity and accuracy.	Provides a rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal mostly demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and mostly applies the principles of charity and accuracy.		Provides a limited rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal somewhat demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and somewhat applies the principles of charity and accuracy.	Attempts to provide a rebuttal to the objection; however, the rebuttal minimally demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and does not apply the principles of charity and accuracy.	The rebuttal is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions.
Conclusion	Provides clear and concise closing remarks that comprehensively summarize the essay. The remarks consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem.	Provides closing remarks that summarize the essay. The remarks mostly consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem. The closing remarks are somewhat unclear.		Provides closing remarks that minimally summarizes the essay. The remarks minimally consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problems. The closing remarks are unclear and/or vague.	Attempts to provide closing remarks that summarize the essay; however, the remarks do not consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem. The closing remarks are unclear and vague.	The closing remarks are either nonexistent or lack the components described in the assignment instructions.
Written Communication: Context of and Purpose for Writing	Demonstrates methodical application of organization and presentation of content. The purpose of the writing is evident and easy to understand. Summaries, quotes, and/or paraphrases fit naturally into the sentences and paragraphs. Paper flows smoothly.	Demonstrates sufficient application of organization and presentation of content. The purpose of the writing is, for the most part, clear and easy to understand. There are some problems with the blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper flows somewhat smoothly.		Demonstrates a limited understanding of organization and presentation of content in written work. The purpose of the writing is somewhat evident but may not be integrated throughout the assignment. There are many problems with the blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper does not flow smoothly in all sections.	Organization and presentation of content are extremely limited. The purpose of the writing is unclear. There is little or no blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper does not flow smoothly when read.	The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Control of Syntax and Mechanics	– Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors and is very easy to understand.	Displays comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains only a few minor errors and is mostly easy to understand		Displays basic comprehension of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains a few errors which may slightly distract the reader.	Fails to display basic comprehension of syntax or mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains major errors which distract the reader.	The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Required Formatting	Accurately uses required formatting consistently throughout the paper, title page, and reference page.	Exhibits required formatting throughout the paper. However, layout contains a few minor errors.		Exhibits limited knowledge of required formatting throughout the paper. However, layout does not meet all requirements.	Fails to exhibit basic knowledge of required formatting. There are frequent errors, making the layout difficult to distinguish as required style.	The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Word Requirement	The length of the paper is equivalent to the required number of words.	The length of the paper is nearly equivalent to the required number of words.		The length of the paper is equivalent to at least three quarters of the required number of words.	The length of the paper is equivalent to at least one half of the required number of words.	The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Resource Requirement	Uses more than the required number of scholarly sources, providing compelling evidence to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.	Uses the required number of scholarly sources to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.		Uses less than the required number of sources to support ideas. Some sources may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are used within the body of the assignment. Citations may not be formatted correctly.	Uses an inadequate number of sources that provide little or no support for ideas. Sources used may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are not used within the body of the assignment. Citations are not formatted correctly.	The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.