Order Number 45471455714
Type of Paper
Essay Writer Classification Level
Undergraduate
Style of Writing
MLA/APA/CHICAGO/
Sources and References 5
Number of Pages
4
Paper Instructions
Philosophy: PP247
Assignment 2 – Essay
Suggested length is 1000-1600 words. You are expected to reference
direct quotations from course notes (Unit 8) and readings, and any outside
sources that you rely upon. Not picky about citation format as long as it’s
easy for me to locate and check them.
Address one of the Ethical Issues raised by Advertising and defend your
own position with reference to course material. (Unit 8)
You’ll need to find an issue or question that is worth writing on – something
debatable, about which you can develop your own argument. Arrington’s
philosophically meaty article is a good source of questions.
For example, is puffery ethical? – consider theorists discussed who criticize
and defend puffery, and argue you own position taking account of
counter-arguments.
Or does advertising undermine autonomy or “create desires” in a sinister
way? – consider what autonomy is, Galbraith and Hayek’s arguments, and
defend your own position against counter-arguments.
You can also consider issues more briefly touched upon, like the ethics of
advertising to children or teenagers, but in such cases you’d benefit from
outside research.
General Advice on writing Philosophy Essays
1. I’m looking for knowledge of the relevant course material,
understanding and evaluation of the arguments involved, and some
original and coherent thinking. Style is relevant. This involves such
things as clarity and organization.
2. The essay is a defence of your own position regarding a question of
ethical significance. To give your position a worthy defence, imagine
that your reader is skeptical about your conclusion but sympathetic to
well formulated arguments.
3. Addressing likely counter-arguments is part of making a good case.
When arguing for a position, imagine how your opponent might reply
and how you might counter their response.
4. If your thesis and argument is so obvious or vague that no reasonable
person would disagree, you might benefit from choosing a more
debatable topic or making a more precise and ambitious argument.
5. Strong argumentation and originality of thought are highly valued in
philosophy papers. This could involve subtle and detailed analysis of
an issue, and it could involve comparing and connecting different ideas
in order to develop your own view.
6. As a reader, I want you to give me the most for the least – that is, to
make lots of points, defend them adequately, back them up with
appropriate attention to course material, and to do this without
padding or repetition.
7. Marks will be deducted for poor writing (organization, grammar,
spelling, and diction), so proofread carefully. Better to divide your
paper into short paragraphs, than have long rambling paragraphs with
separate or loosely related ideas.
8. I dislike papers that clearly misread an author or text, that are
self-contradictory, or that say little in a vague way.
9. All ideas taken from someone else should be referenced in MLA or APA
format. Page references should be given for all direct quotations. If
you are researching a case for analysis, make sure to reference your
factual sources.
Unit Eight: Advertising Ethics
8.0 Introduction
Advertising raises a number of ethical issues. Some relate to the topic of
deception we discussed in the last unit. Advertising tries to manipulate
us into buying something, usually in ways that are more subtle than
blatant deception. There are also issues concerning the advertising of
harmful products, and the effect of advertising’s underlying message
that consumerism and buying things is the way to be happy.
The course materials include two philosophical articles about the effects
of advertising, and a film which sums up many issues discussed in the
unit. Because the film presents a lot of ideas, it is best to view it after
you’ve worked through the readings and course notes.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this unit you will be able to:
● Define concepts such as puffery, associative advertising, the
dependence effect, and autonomy.
● State several ethical issues raised by advertising and develop
one’s own position.
● Explain how advertising affects society and influences our values.
Readings
Lutz, William (1989), “With These Words I Can Sell You
Anything,” Doublespeak. New York: Harper Collins,
p.76-103.
Arrington, Robert (1991), “Advertising and Behavior Control,”
from Business Ethics in Canada, 2nd ed., ed. Deborah Poff
and Wilfrid Waluchow. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall, p.469-478.
Waide, John (1991), “The Making of Self and World in
Advertising,” from Business Ethics in Canada, 2nd ed., ed.
Deborah Poff and Wilfrid Waluchow. Scarborough:
Prentice-Hall, p.489-493.
Tittle, Peg (2000), “Case Study – Youth News Network (YNN),”
from Ethical Issues in Business: Inquiries, Cases, and
Readings. Peterborough: Broadview Press, p.128-129.
Velasquez, Manuel (2007), “Case 9.1 – Toy Wars,” from
Honest Work: A Business Ethics Reader. New York:
Oxford University Press, p.343-346.
Web Reading
Canadian Code of Advertising Standards
Readings for Section 8.6 are embedded in the course notes.
Film
Advertising and the End of the World
40 min, 1998 – Distributor and Producer: Media Education
Foundation Link to video
Synopsis: This program presents a compelling and accessible
argument about consumerism and its impact on the earth’s
future. Sut Jhally contends that advertising is the most
concentrated effort in history to change public consciousness.
The average person is exposed to 3600 commercial
impressions every day, making advertising the most pervasive
message system in the consumer culture. Understanding its
influence demands that we pay attention not just to isolated
advertisements but to the way in which advertising functions
as a cultural system.
Glossary Terms
● Associative Advertising
● Autonomy
● Bait and Switch
● Behaviourism
● Consumer Sovereignty
● Dependence Effect
● Influencer Marketing
● Aspirational vs. Authoritative Influencers
● Native Advertising
● Product Placement
● Puffery
● Subliminal Advertising
● Transparency Rule, Disclosure Rule
Persons of Note
● Arrington, Robert
● Freud, Sigmund
● Galbraith, John Kenneth
● Hayek, Friedrich
● Jhally, Sut (film)
● Levitt, Theodore
● Waide, John
● Watson, John B.
8.1 History of Advertising
Advertising began as a rational enterprise, whose purpose was to convey
information about a product or service and make claims in propositional
form. Here is an example of a newspaper ad that appeared in the
Boston Gazette in 18th century America:
“Whereas many persons are so unfortunate as to lose their Foreteeth by
Accident, and otherways, to their great Detriment, not only in Looks but
Speaking both in Public and Private: This is to inform all such, that they
may have them replaced with false Ones, that look as well as the
Natural, and Answers the End of Speaking to all Intents, by PAUL
REVERE, Goldsmith” (Postman, 1985, p.59).
This is an ad for dentistry which states basic facts about the service. The
Paul Revere mentioned here is the man famous for sounding the alarm
“The British are coming!” during the American Revolution. Many real
estate or help wanted ads today have a similar informational focus.
It was only in the 1890’s that there was a shift in advertising to slogans,
jingles, and photographic images. “You push the button, we do the rest”
is said to be one of the first advertising slogans. Then cereal began to be
promoted, not with a description of it’s properties, but with “a picture of
a baby in a high chair, the bowl of cereal before him, his spoon in hand,
his face ecstatic” (Postman, 1985, p.60).
In the 1920’s, advertising began to draw on psychology to influence
consumer behaviour. The psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud
and the behaviorist theories of John B. Watson were both becoming
popular. Freud saw humans not as rational beings, but as controlled by
unconscious desires, often sexual in nature. Watson, the father of
behaviourism, saw people as a stimulus-response mechanism which
could be conditioned to behave in certain ways, like the dog in Pavlov’s
classic behaviorist experiment that learned to salivate when a bell was
rung because it came to associate the sound with being fed. After
Watson lost his academic job in 1926 after having an affair with a
student, he went to work for the Madison Avenue advertising industry.
With the coming of television in the 1950’s – a medium attracting
millions of viewers and financed by advertising revenue – the most
prominent ads became TV commercials. These were (and still are)
mostly little dramas with a message, which appeal to emotion and create
powerful positive associations for the product. It was at this point that
the effects of advertising began to be criticized in influential books like
John Kenneth Galbraith’s The Affluent Society (1958) and Vance
Packard’s The Hidden Persuaders (1958). Their ideas are discussed in
the Arrington article in the course package.
8.2.1 Canadian Code of Advertising Standards
Click on this link to read the current code (revised July 2019). Below I have
summarized and commented on several noteworthy provisions. You will notice that
the first points and the majority of the points deal with the imperative to be truthful
and non-deceptive. Advertisers must not misrepresent the product or its price and
availability. The 14th provision, “Unacceptable Depictions and Portrayals,” was
added in the 2019 update.
1. Accuracy and Clarity
Advertisements must not contain inaccurate or deceptive claims, statements,
illustrations or representations, either direct or implied, with regard to a
product or service.
“Thou shall not lie” is the first commandment of the code. To the extent such
claims are merely “implied” we are skating on more ambiguous ground.
There are many types and degrees of implication. Some of them we’d all
consider deceptive and unethical, and some are commonplace in advertising.
See the discussion of advertising doublespeak in the next section.
2. Disguised Advertising Techniques
No advertisement shall be presented in a format or style which conceals its
commercial intent.
For example, lengthy infomercials on late-night TV may have a talk show
format, but they are required to identify their commercial status.
3. Price Claims
No advertisement shall include deceptive price claims or discounts, unrealistic
price comparisons or exaggerated claims as to worth or value.
In other words, don’t lie about your prices or those of the competition.
4. Bait and Switch
Advertisements must not misrepresent the consumer’s opportunity to
purchase the goods and services at the terms presented.
“Bait and Switch” is a ploy in which a product is advertised but only a few
items are keep in stock, so customers are lured into the store and then
switched to more expensive items. Grocery stores will often give “rain
cheques” if a sale item is sold out, to keep customers happy and avoid any
suspicion that they are using the bait and switch.
5. Professional or Scientific Claims
Advertisements must not distort the true meaning of statements made by
professionals or scientific authorities.
Appeals to authority and scientific claims should be non-deceptive.
The Code’s second main area of concern is advertising to children and
minors. It forbids exploiting children’s credulity or encouraging those
underage to buy adults-only products.
6. Advertising to Children
Advertising that is directed to children must not exploit their credulity, lack of
experience or their sense of loyalty.
Commercials directed at young children are controversial, and some think
such advertising should be banned entirely. This goes especially when
marketing promotes products that aren’t good for kids, like sugary cereals,
pop, and junk food. Quebec’s Consumer Protection Act prohibits television
advertising directed at children under 13.
Some think such legislation should be enacted in Ontario. The Canadian Code
of Advertising Standards at least forbids advertisers from manipulating
children in certain ways.
7. Advertising to Minors
Products prohibited from sale to minors must not be advertised in such a way
as to appeal particularly to persons under legal age.
Minors are people under 18, the age of majority in Canada. This provision is
aimed particularly at cigarette and alcohol advertising. Using cartoon
characters to market cigarettes or showing teenagers drinking beer in an ad
would contravene the code.
There is also some controversy about the marketing of sexy fashions to teen
and preteen girls. Kids are strongly attracted to things signifying adulthood
and maturity, while parents don’t want them growing up too fast, especially
when it comes to sex. Since it’s not illegal for minors to dress sexy,
marketing sexy clothes to them would not contravene the code.
The cases for this unit, “Youth News Network” and “Toy Wars,” both deal
with advertising directed at children or minors. Keep in mind the material in
this section when analyzing them.
Unit Eight: Advertising Ethics
8.2.2 Doublespeak: With These Words I Can Sell You Anything
(Lutz, p.76-103)
This reading is a chapter on advertising from a book on doublespeak – a
topic I used to discuss when teaching Reasoning and Argumentation. It
is an accessible, non-academic piece with lots of examples to think
about.
Doublespeak – the art of creating a false impression and misleading
through words without actually lying. Advertising uses doublespeak “to
make promises without actually promising anything, to make statements
about products without actually saying anything, to pretend to
communicate while saying nothing” (Lutz, p.83).
Parity Products (p.83) – these are products that are essentially the
same, so they must be promoted on the basis of image-making. For
example, Coke and Pepsi or competing brands of toothpaste.
Weasel words (p.85) – claims which are hollow, like an egg whose
insides have been sucked out by a weasel. They appear to say something
but actually just create a vague positive impression. Some examples
from the reading include:
“Help” (p.86) – only means to assist or aid, so it involves no promise to
do or cure anything. When a toothpaste claims to “help prevent cavities”
it doesn’t say it actually will prevent them.
“Virtually” (p.88) – means in essence or effect, though not in fact.
Saying that when taken as directed birth control pills offer “virtually
100% protection” against pregnancy doesn’t imply a warranty that the
pills will be effective.
“New and Improved” (p.89) – means the product has been changed in
some way. Very minor changes allow companies to make that claim, and
whether the change is an improvement is a matter of opinion.
“Up To” (p.94) – a sale that promises “up to 50% off” sounds concrete
but actually isn’t. Maybe only a few items are that deeply discounted.
Unfinished Words (p.95) – “Magnivox gives you more” (More than
what? It sounds nice but means nothing.)
When I was an undergrad, I worked as a hotel desk clerk in the summer,
and well remember some of the doublespeak we used. We were told to
offer customers “deluxe hotel rooms” when quoting rates – rooms that
most of the staff agreed weren’t any nicer than the regular rooms, but
gave customers a chance to plunk down an extra $10-15 if they were
willing. Specials listed in our brochures were always listed as “subject to
availability” which essentially gave us an out if we ever wanted to
withdraw them. One needn’t interpret “availability” to mean any
available room but only whatever rooms we decided to set aside for the
special.
Challenge: pay attention to advertising dramas and slogans to detect
their hidden message. When translated into plan statements they are
unconvincing, and sometimes laughable or offensive.
8.3 Advertising and Behaviour Control
(Arrington, p.3-12)
Arrington’s article is more philosophical and academic. It discusses some
advertising techniques, and grapples with the worry that advertising can
control behaviour and create false desires, and concludes with an
analysis of the idea of autonomy.
8.3.1 Puffery
Puffery is the practice of making exaggerated, fanciful, or highly
suggestive claims about a product or service. Usually the exaggeration is
obvious and concerns subjective feelings or non-material associations.
Misrepresenting the facts about a product or making false scientific
claims isn’t puffery, it is blatant deception (Arrington p.3; Lutz p.83).
Arrington begins his article by giving six examples of puffery. For
example, this poetic description of make-up: “Pongo Peach color from
Revlon comes ‘from east of the sun … west of the moon where each
tomorrow dawns.’ It is ‘succulent on your lips’ and ‘sizzling on your
finger tips'” (Arrington p.469). Where exactly is East of the Sun? For
adults at the time of the ad, it would invoke the title of a classic jazz
song recorded by Frank Sinatra and others.
A favourite example of mine is the the Molson Canadian beer ad from
decades ago which described the product as “cold, clean, and crisp.” This
is absurd if you think about each word. Any beer is cold if you put in the
fridge, and warm if you don’t. You would hope every beer is clean, that
no poisonous chemicals or rodent droppings accidently get into it at the
factory. And how can a liquid be crisp? Potato chips are crisp, carrots
sticks are crisp, but beer is wet not crunchy.
However, the words “cold, clean, and crisp” are effective puffery. They
evoke associations of Canadian patriotism, purity, and refreshment. You
are supposed to feel that because the beer is from a cold and clean
country, it will somehow be colder and cleaner than other beers.
Evaluation
The most famous attempt to defend puffery was made by Theodore
Levitt in 1970. He argued that humans naturally desire to embellish,
enrich, and enchant the world around them. Commerce merely takes the
same liberty as the artist and the priest in “creating illusions, symbols,
and implications that promise more than mere functionality” (Arrington
p.5).
However, the classic justification for advertising contends that ads simply
give us information which allows us to purchase what we want (Arrington
p.6). This may have been true of earlier forms of advertising, but with
the aid of psychology, modern advertising goes further and tries to
shape our desires.
8.3.2 The Dependence Effect
The Dependence Effect is economist John Kenneth Galbraith’s concept
that business creates the desire for its products through advertising.
Rather than producing products to satisfy pre-existing desires, modern
business creates the desire for what it has to sell. “The producers make
both the product and the desire for it.” The term “dependence effect”
refers to “the way wants depend on the same process by which they are
satisfied.” (Arrington, p.6).
This makes consumers seem like hamsters on a wheel. They can never
satisfy their desires for goods, because business will use advertising to
make them want more. Business seeks profit, and to do this it must
persuade us to want what it has to sell.
Responses to Galbraith
(1) Hayek – Culturally Induced Desires can be autonomous
Defenders of advertising could point out that before certain great artists
pioneered certain genres of music, there was no desire to listen to them,
and that before certain mechanical inventions were produced, there was
no desire to use them. Elvis Presley and The Beatles created a taste for a
certain kind of rock music. People were generally content without email
and the internet before personal computers opened up this possibility. So
in some sense, creating desires and needs has been going on before
advertising, and it need not be some sinister violation of our autonomy.
This point was made by free-market economist Friedrich Hayek in
response to Galbraith. He argues that “we should not equate
non-autonomous desires, desires which are not original to me or truly
mine, with those that are culturally induced.” (Arrington p.6). The fact
that you wouldn’t desire A-1 Steak Sauce if it wasn’t advertised doesn’t
mean that ads create a need for it in some sinister way.
(2) Mises – Consumer Sovereignty
If advertising is enough to make people buy a product, why don’t
companies simply invest all their money in marketing? Research and
development cost money. So why create new products if you could
simply persuade the public to keep buying the existing ones?
In the article “Un-PC Lego Making Toys Girls Like” (Essay Resources –
Lego Friends), the author invokes Ludwig von Mises’ concept of
Consumer Sovereignty. This is the idea that consumers have the ability
to refuse to buy what is marketed to them.
8.3.3 Autonomy
What is autonomy? It is a complex concept that involves several
dimensions. Negative liberty, the absence of constraint. Competence and
self-control. The ability to critically reflect about a range of options. It is
related to the concept of Positive Freedom that we discussed in Unit 4
(along with positive rights). To be autonomous is not merely to be free,
in the sense of being left alone, but to have the inner resources to make
use of that freedom in a self-directed way. Autonomy is nourished by
education that promotes critical thinking, and restricted by addictions
and inner compulsions.
Desires can be autonomous or non-autonomous. They are autonomous if
we identify with and fully own them. But they can be non-autonomous if
they seem foreign to our personality and character, something our
“better nature” would like us to stop doing. If I enjoy A-1 Steak Sauce
and am completely happy consuming it, my desire for it is autonomous
even if I was persuaded to buy it by ads. If I’d like to stop smoking but
can’t, my desire for the cigarettes is non-autonomous in conflict with
more rational desires. Arrington maintains that “most of the desires
induced by advertising I fully accept, hence most of those desires are
autonomous” (p.7). Thus it is mistaken to see advertising as a sinister
force controlling and programming our desires.Distinguished (100%)
Proficient (85%)
Basic (70%)
Below Expectations (50%)
Non-Performance (0%)
Thesis Statement Raises the strongest objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is strongly grounded in research and logical reasoning. Raises a plausible objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is mostly grounded in research and logical reasoning.
Raises an objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is somewhat grounded in research and logical reasoning. Attempts to raise an objection to the thesis presented in the assignment. The objection is minimally grounded in research and logical reasoning.
The objection to the thesis is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Counter Argument Provides a strong, thorough rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal effectively demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and applies the principles of charity and accuracy.
Provides a rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal mostly demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and mostly applies the principles of charity and accuracy.
Provides a limited rebuttal to the objection. The rebuttal somewhat demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and somewhat applies the principles of charity and accuracy.
Attempts to provide a rebuttal to the objection; however, the rebuttal minimally demonstrates that the thesis can withstand the objection and does not apply the principles of charity and accuracy.
The rebuttal is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the assignment instructions. Conclusion Provides clear and concise closing remarks that comprehensively summarize the essay. The remarks consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem.
Provides closing remarks that summarize the essay. The remarks mostly consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem. The closing remarks are somewhat unclear.
Provides closing remarks that minimally summarizes the essay. The remarks minimally consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problems. The closing remarks are unclear and/or vague.
Attempts to provide closing remarks that summarize the essay; however, the remarks do not consider the broader controversy and/or further research that could offer additional insight into the moral solution of the business problem. The closing remarks are unclear and vague. The closing remarks are either nonexistent or lack the components described in the assignment instructions.
Written Communication: Context of and Purpose for Writing
Demonstrates methodical application of organization and presentation of content. The purpose of the writing is evident and easy to understand. Summaries, quotes, and/or paraphrases fit naturally into the sentences and paragraphs. Paper flows smoothly.
Demonstrates sufficient application of organization and presentation of content. The purpose of the writing is, for the most part, clear and easy to understand. There are some problems with the blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper flows somewhat smoothly. Demonstrates a limited understanding of organization and presentation of content in written work. The purpose of the writing is somewhat evident but may not be integrated throughout the assignment. There are many problems with the blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper does not flow smoothly in all sections.
Organization and presentation of content are extremely limited. The purpose of the writing is unclear. There is little or no blending of summaries, paraphrases, and quotes. Paper does not flow smoothly when read.
The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Control of Syntax and Mechanics
– Displays meticulous comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains no errors and is very easy to understand.
Displays comprehension and organization of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains only a few minor errors and is mostly easy to understand Displays basic comprehension of syntax and mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains a few errors which may slightly distract the reader.
Fails to display basic comprehension of syntax or mechanics, such as spelling and grammar. Written work contains major errors which distract the reader.
The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Required Formatting
Accurately uses required formatting consistently throughout the paper, title page, and reference page.
Exhibits required formatting throughout the paper. However, layout contains a few minor errors. Exhibits limited knowledge of required formatting throughout the paper. However, layout does not meet all requirements.
Fails to exhibit basic knowledge of required formatting. There are frequent errors, making the layout difficult to distinguish as required style.
The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Word Requirement
The length of the paper is equivalent to the required number of words. The length of the paper is nearly equivalent to the required number of words.
The length of the paper is equivalent to at least three quarters of the required number of words. The length of the paper is equivalent to at least one half of the required number of words.
The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.
Written Communication: Resource Requirement Uses more than the required number of scholarly sources, providing compelling evidence to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.
Uses the required number of scholarly sources to support ideas. All sources on the reference page are used and cited correctly within the body of the assignment.
Uses less than the required number of sources to support ideas. Some sources may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are used within the body of the assignment. Citations may not be formatted correctly. Uses an inadequate number of sources that provide little or no support for ideas. Sources used may not be scholarly. Most sources on the reference page are not used within the body of the assignment. Citations are not formatted correctly.
The assignment is either nonexistent or lacks the components described in the instructions.